By 79 AD the British tribes as far north as the Tyne had been pacified and the Romans turned their attention more fully to the lands that would one day become Scotland. Sent to Britain by Emperor Vespasian to govern the province General Gnaeus Julius Agricola continued the ‘Romanising of Britain’

In 80 AD the offensive against Scotland began. The Ninth Legion march northwards through the lands of the Votadini in the east, while on western side the twentieth legion also moved north. The two legions then joined forces and marched to the Firth of Tay. After building a fortress base at Inchtuthil, Agricola then took 35,000 men up the west coast and conquered the Novante. Over the next few years he consolidated his gains and built a series of forts across the country between the Clyde and the Forth.

By 83 AD Agricola was on the move again and began a march north with powerful fleet travelling up the east coast in support. After defeating numerous tribes and building several forts on the way, he set out in 84 AD with a force of 10,000 men to subdue the tribes of the Caledonii.

With a Roman army on its way north, Calgacus (the swordsman) leader of the Caledonii was busy gathering together an army of some 30,000 fierce highland tribesmen. The two armies came together in the summer of 84 AD at the battle of Mons Graupius, 30,000 Pictish tribesmen facing 10,000 Roman soldiers. Calgacus’s warriors took the high ground, lining the hillsides, while his charioteers raced back and forth on the level ground between the two armies, taunting and attempting to draw the Romans into a premature attack. The thin Roman line facing them stretched almost two miles and consisted of 8,000 auxiliary on foot, 1500 light cavalry on the flanks and a reserve of 500 horse behind the lines.

The Romans commenced the battle by throwing their javelins and while some were deflected by shield and sword, many found their marks. Despite suffering heavy initial casualties the warriors of the Caledonii held their ground. Frustrated by the lack of forward movement against the tribesmen, Agricola ordered two of his auxiliary cohorts to close with the front ranks of the Caledonii. The auxiliaries crashed into the front line causing the tribesmen to fall back and were so successful that they were in danger of being surrounded as the warriors of Caledonii retaliated. Seeing the Romans slipping and falling on the blood soak grass, they surged downhill attempting to outflank the auxiliary cohorts. But as they did so Agricola sent in his mounted reserves and they began to attack the Caledonii flanks. Practically surrounded, the warriors fought fiercely to break through the Roman line. The Roman centre held however and as their flanks were decimated, the warriors began to slip away. Some such as the Gaesti continued to fight, but as their numbers were whittled down, they too were forced to flee.

As the season was against him Agricola withdrew to the Moray Firth and was recalled to Rome by the Emperor Domitian a few months later at the end of 84 AD. Agricola may have won the battle, but 20,000 of the Caledonii survived and it is known that the tribes’ constant raids caused problems for the Romans time and time again, over the following years.

Boudicca Queen Of The Iceni

Boudicca as described by Dio Cassius, “She was huge of frame, terrifying of aspect, and with a harsh voice. A great mass of bright red hair fell to her knees: she wore a twisted torc, and a tunic of many colours, (The clan tartan of the Iceni), over, which was a thick mantle, fastened by a brooch. Now she grasped a spear, to strike fear into all who watched her”.

43 AD, Boudicca (Boadicea) was married to Prasutagas, king of the Iceni peoples and when the Romans invaded in that year, he thought it wise to reach an accommodation with the invaders. As a client kingdom the people were allowed to retain their lands and live in peace with their customs and headed by their own king, albeit under overall Roman rule. The tribe flourished, trading with both Ireland and Rome. The Merchants and the rulers of the Iceni prospered grew rich and paid ever-increasing taxes to his Roman overlords.

The ageing king, sickened by Roman greed and fearing that his family would be left destitute when he died, made a will leaving half of his wealth to emperor Nero. When Prasutagas died however in 60 AD, the Roman vultures pounced and the Procurator of the province, Catus Deimus was sent in. He appropriated the Iceni lands on behalf of Rome, seized the king’s property, enslaved many of his kin, and when the queen protested had her flogged and her daughters raped. This highhanded treatment of the royal family caused outrage and Boudicca found herself at the head of an uprising of the clans of the east and the midlands.

Ill equipped and only half-armed the Celtic army 100,000 strong marched on the former capital of Caratacus, Camulodunum (Colchester) where the great temple of Claudius dominated the town, a visible testament to Roman rule. Boudicca fell upon the city stormed the temple, put to the sword all those inside and burnt the temple and the city to the ground. Turning from Camulodunum the Britons swept down upon the relief force, the Ninth Legion, decimating the Roman infantry and sending the cavalry fleeing to Londinium (London)

Meanwhile Suetonius Paulinus, the Governor of Britain who had been seeing to the destruction of the Druids of Mona, had by a series of forced marches reach Lundinium and was busy gathering an opposing force. On finding however that the Ninth Legion had been virtually destroyed he realised he was too weak and evacuated his troops. Those that were unable to withdraw with his column were left to be massacred by the Celts. Although Lundinium wasn’t a colony, it was the largest Roman settlement in Britain and it too was burned to the ground. Next came the Roman town of Verulamium (St Albans) where fire and sword once more carried the day.

Tacitus declares that, to his own knowledge, no fewer than seventy thousand Romans and pro-Romans thus perished in this fearful day of vengeance.

Suetonius Paulinus, now felt strong enough to risk a battle, despite only having ten thousand men to go against a force had by now grown to two hundred and thirty thousand. The ground where the two armies met was close to London. Tradition has it that the place was, Battle Bridge (Present day King’s Cross).  Suetonius formed his men in line across a glade, with the forest on either side protecting his flanks and was waiting for the Britons when they return from Verulamium. The Romans stood firm under rain of missiles from the Britons and withheld their fire until the horde was in close range. Then they discharged the Pila (A mass of thrown Javelins) into the enemy centre. The front gave, and forming into a wedge, the Romans charged into the gap cutting the British line in two.

Caratacus

Fought Romans for nine years.

Caratacus (Caractacus) and his brother Togodumnus were said to be the sons of Conobelinus, King of the Catuvellauni. On the death Conobelinus after a long illness the eldest son Togodumnus inherited the majority of the tribal lands. Caratacus, no doubt encouraged by his brother, had already ousted King Verica of the Atrebates c, AD42, and gained control over much of southeast England.

Forced from his throne Verica fled first to Gaul and then to Rome to plead his case before the emperor Claudius. In an effort to strengthen his hold on the Roman Empire the aged Claudius used this as an excuse to send an expedition to Britain.

The Roman Aulus Plautius commanded the invasion and immediately came up against the opposition, instigated and led by Togodumnus and Caratacus. After an initial engagement the Celts were forced back beyond the river Medway, where they regrouped and attacked the Romans again. They fought long and hard but in the end were routed and pushed back beyond the Thames. Not long afterwards Togodumnus died.

Having routed the Celts Aulus Plautius halted and sent word to Claudius. The Emperor arrived with reinforcements and elephants and led the advance on Camulodunum (Colchester) the Catuvellaunian capital. Where according to Claudius’s triumphal arch “he received the surrender of eleven kings of the Britain’s defeated without loss” The fact that there were no losses probably meant that Plautius had already beaten the Celts before Claudius arrived.

Forced to abandon Camlodunum, Caratacus, his family and his retinue travelled west to the wood covered hills of Wales, where his reputation as a fierce warrior stood him in good stead with the Welch tribes. Operating out of the lands of the Silures, he gathered together a mixed force consisting of men from the Demetae, Ordovices and Deceangli as well as the Silures and struck deep into Roman held territory. The attack was well timed and created havoc in Glevum (Gloucestershire). So much so that after restoring order and pushing Caratacus back across the River Severn, the Roman governor, Ostorius Scapula moved the Twentieth Legion Valeria from the fortress of Camulodunum toGlevum, where they established a fortress to guard the lower Severn.

As soon as the Twentieth were in place Scapula sent the Second Legion Augusta across the river to strike into the Silurian heartland. Caratacus and his men however had slipped away through the woods, moved on to mid Wales and set up a base in the land of the Ordovices. From there Caratacus used guerrilla tactics to hold back the Roman advance.  In a counter move Scapula brought into play the Fourteenth Legion Gemina and built another fortress At Viroconium as a second base. With the Second Legion pushing the rebels ever northward Scapula sent the Fourteenth southwards, forcing Caratcus to fight or melt away into the hills of Wales.

Caratacus decided it was time to face up to Romans in an all or nothing fight, chose a hill beyond a river as the battleground and built as part of his defences, a stone rampart part way up the hillside.

Fred Watson May 2008.

The battle and its consequences, as described by Tacitus.

The army then marched against the Silures, a naturally fierce people and now full of confidence in the might of Caratacus, who by many an indecisive and many a successful battle had raised himself far above all the other Generals of the Britons. Inferior in military strength, but deriving an advantage from the deceptiveness of the country, he at once shifted the war by a stratagem into the territory of the Ordovices, where joined by all who dreaded peace with us, he resolved on a final struggle. He selected a position for the engagement in which advance and retreat alike would be difficult for our men and comparatively easy for his own, and then on some lofty hills, wherever their sides could be approached by a gentle slope, he piled up stones to serve as a rampart. A river too of varying depth was in his front, and his armed bands were drawn up before his defences.

Then too the chieftains of the several tribes went from rank to rank, encouraging and confirming the spirit of their men by making light of their fears, kindling their hopes, and by every other warlike incitement. As for Caratacus, he flew hither and thither, protesting that that day and that battle would be the beginning of the recovery of their freedom, or of everlasting bondage. He appealed by name, to their forefathers who had driven back the dictator Caesar, by whose valour they were free from the Roman axe and tribute, and still preserved inviolate the persons of their wives and of their children. While he was thus speaking, the host shouted applause; every warrior bound himself by his national oath not to shrink from weapons or wounds.

Such enthusiasm confounded the Roman general. The river too in his face, the rampart they had added to it, the frowning hilltops, the stern resistance and masses of fighting men everywhere apparent, daunted him. But his soldiers insisted on battle, exclaiming that valour could overcome all things; and prefects and tribunes, with similar language, stimulated the ardour of the troops. Ostorius having ascertained by a survey the inaccessible and assailable points of the position, led his furious men, and crossed the river without difficulty. When he reached the barrier, as long as it was a fight with missiles, the wounds and slaughter fell chiefly on our soldiers; but when he had formed the military testudo, and the rude, ill-compacted fence of stones was torn down, and it was an equal hand-to-hand engagement, the barbarians retired to the heights. Yet even there, both light and heavy-armed soldiers rushed to the attack; the first harassed the foe with missiles, while the latter closed with them, and the opposing ranks of the Britons were broken, destitute as they were of the defence of breast-plates or helmets. When they faced the auxiliaries, they were felled by the swords and javelins of our legionaries; if they wheeled round, they were again met by the sabres and spears of the auxiliaries. It was a glorious victory; the wife and daughter of Caratacus were captured, and his brothers too were admitted to surrender.

There is seldom safety for the unfortunate, and Caratacus, seeking the protection of Cartimandua, queen of the Brigantes, was put in chains and delivered up to the conquerors, nine years after the beginning of the war in Britain. His fame had spread thence, and travelled to the neighbouring islands and provinces, and was actually celebrated in Italy. All were eager to see the great man, who for so many years had defied our power. Even at Rome the name of Caratacus was no obscure one; and the emperor, while he exalted his own glory, enhanced the renown of the vanquished. The people were summoned to a grand spectacle; the praetorian cohorts were drawn up under arms in the plain in front of their camp; then came a procession of the royal vassals, and ornaments and neck-chains and the spoils, which the king had won in wars with other tribes, were displayed. Next were seen his brothers, his wife and daughter; last of all Caratacus himself. All the rest stooped in their fear to abject supplication; not so the king, who neither by humble look nor speech sought compassion.

When he was set before the emperor’s tribunal, he spoke as follows: “Had my moderation in prosperity been equal to my noble birth and fortune, I should have entered this city as your friend rather than your captive; and you would not have disdained to receive, under treaty of peace, a king descended from illustrious ancestors and ruling many nations. My present lot is as glorious to you as it is degrading to myself, I had men and horses, arms and wealth. What wonder if I parted with them reluctantly?  If you Romans choose to lord it over the world, does it follow that the world is to accept slavery? Were I to have been at once delivered up as a prisoner, neither my fall nor your triumph would have become famous. My punishment would be followed by oblivion, whereas, if you save my life, I shall be an everlasting memorial of your clemency.”

Upon this the emperor granted pardon to Caratacus, to his wife, and to his brothers. Released from their bonds, they did homage also to Agrippina who sat near, conspicuous on another throne, in the same language of praise and gratitude.

Caswallon

British patriot chieftain against Caesar

After his first abortive expedition to Britain in 56BC, Gaius Julius Caesar retreated back to his base in Gaul. It wasn’t long however before he returned and when he did he was to face the most powerful chieftain in the land, Caswallon or Cassivellaunus as the Romans called him, chief of the Cateuchlani tribe and leader of a tribal coalition against the Romans.

On the 21^st of July 55BC, after a delay caused by strong winds, Caesar set sail from Boulogne at the head of the biggest fleet ever to invade Britain. (Bigger than any Viking Fleet, bigger than that belonging to William the Conqueror and bigger by far than the Spanish Armada). 800 ships containing five legions; thirty thousand infantry, two thousand horse and if Polyaenus is to be believed a fighting Elephant.  The Fleet landed unopposed the following day on the beach at Deal. (According to Caesar’s captives, the British had fled on seeing the size of the invading force. The question is, if he was unopposed, from whom did Caesar capture his captives?)

Whoever these captives were, they agreed to lead Caesar to the enemy positions and leaving only ten cohorts and three hundred cavalry to guard the ships he set off on a twelve mile, overnight, forced march. At daybreak they sighted the enemy on a ridge of high ground at the other side of a largish stream, (Napoleon believed the hill to have been Barham Down and the stream to be the Lesser Stour).

To secure passage of the stream, the Roman cavalry were ordered across, but they were driven back by a downhill charge of British cavalry and chariots and retreated to the banks of the stream where they rejoined the twenty four thousand legionaries and seventeen hundred horsemen of Caesar’s force. The British outnumbered had no choice but to give way, some scattered in confusion but the larger number retreated in good order to a stronghold fortified by felled trees, in the nearby woods.

The Defenders fought long and hard, while other tribesmen harassed the Romans from another nearby forest. In the end after first throwing up trenches, the Seventh legion formed a tortoise with their shields and succeeded in taking the fortification. The British were forced into flight across the downs leaving them open to attack from behind. Despite the fatigue of his men who’d had no rest for two days and nights, Caesar was determined press home the defeat and sent the least exhausted of his men in pursuit.

The columns had barely left however when they were recalled back again. Caesar had received a message from the fleet at Deal, there had been terrible gales and the fleet was lying damaged or destroyed on the beach. On receiving the news Caesar put the campaign on temporary hold and leaving his army encamped on the battlefield, hurried back to sort out the mess. It was ten days before he returned to the camp at Barham Down and by then he found Caswallon leading an even bigger army that before.

The British attacked driving back the outposts that were protecting the legionnaires entrenching the camp and when reinforcements were sent in the British created havoc by driving their chariots straight through the lines, then turning and driving back through them again. This tactic went on for quite a while and many Romans were killed including the Tribune or Divisional General of one of the legions, Quintus Labienus Durus.

The British were master of the chariot and the tactic of small groups racing in, causing as much damage as possible then retiring out of range, did not sit well with the Roman idea of disciplined battle. For Caesar to succeed he need to face the enemy face on in pitched battle and he came up with a devious plan to suck the British into a confrontation. For his part Caswallon wanted the opposite, his aim was to draw the Romans out of their camp, so that his groups of chariots could attack them, unfortunately this was to be his undoing.

The next morning Caswollon’s chariot squadrons buzzed about just out of range to draw the enemy out and their efforts were rewarded. Caesar sent three legions of infantry and all of his cavalry in pursuit, but after a while, to the delight of Caswallon, the Romans broke ranks and began to forage. It was and opportunity too good to miss, the British charged in from every side and the trap was sprung. The Romans, as prearranged, reformed and counter charged, the British broke and fled with the main body being pursued closely by the Romans. The slaughter by the pursuers was so great that Caswallon’s power over the other tribes was broken; they deserted in droves and returned to their tribal homelands.

The desertion of the other tribes gave Caswallon no choice but continue the fight with his tribesmen alone. So with Caesar hot on his trail he retreated to London and destroyed all means of crossing the Thames. Unable to cross the Romans marched upriver towards a ford an informer had told them about – It is thought that a place, called in ancient times Coway Stakes, near to Walton-On-Thames, could have been the ford. While Caesar marched along the south bank the main portion of Caswallon’s army kept pace with them on the north bank. Caswallon however had already sent some of his men forward and they had seeded the ford with sharpened stakes both above and below the surface.

Caswallon reached the ford first and with the stake seeded river to his fore must have felt his position impregnable. Despite being aware of this, Caesar still need to cross if he was to come to grips with the enemy, so he ordered cavalry into the water followed by infantry. Many were killed and maimed on the hidden stakes or by the spears and other missiles thrown from the bank. But eventually by dint of shear numbers the Romans reached the far bank, only to find that Caswallon and his men had melted away.

Having burnt his fingers in direct confrontation with the Romans, Caswallon fell back on the tactics that best suited a smaller force when faced with a larger enemy. Guerrilla warfare. Using a flying column of charioteers in front of the Roman line of advance he drove the flocks and herds out of sight into the woods and then fell on any foragers who dared to track the flocks. This tactic cost Caesar the loss of so many men that he had to call a halt to foraging and had to rely on his lines of supply, which themselves were subject to attack by Caswallon’s men.

Caesar, now deep in Caswallon’s own territory has another source of provisions, Mandubratius, who had been elected as leader of the Trinobntians, had submitted to Roman rule and was now sending him supplies as well as hostages. This submission persuaded others and several of the clans followed suit. One of the smaller clans, the Cassi not only submitted but guided the Romans to Caswallon’s fortress in the forest near to St Albans. The Cateuchlani livestock along with the women and children were herded into the safety of the fortress, while the charioteers and part of the army tried by various means to prevent the Roman advance through the forest. Trees were felled creating obstacles in their path and as they tried to clear, or go around them, chariots attacked from all sides. But while these tactics did slow the Romans there were too many of the legionaries and too few of the Cateuchlani to prevent the eventual attack on the fortress.

Besieged on two sides the defenders fought valiantly, but when it became clear that the superior numbers of the Romans would be able to take the fortress, the Cateuchlani did as the normally did and fled over the other two walls, hoping to eventually regroup and fight another day. Unfortunately the Romans were prepared for this eventuality and Caesar’s cavalry swept around killing and capturing many as they fled. Caesar had captured the fortress, taken many prisoners and solved his supply problems by capturing the tribe’s livestock, but he had failed to capture Caswallon himself.

Caswallon having escaped used what was left of his influence to make one final stab at victory. He persuaded, the leaders of the Kentish clans, Cingetorix, Canilius, Taximagulus and Segonax to attack the Roman fort protecting the fleet at Richborough (Deal). The attack failed, one of the British leaders was captured and Caswallon’s open rebellion was over. He was a beaten man, but even so he wasn’t prepared just to surrender unconditionally. He negotiated terms with Caesar through the offices of the Aterebatian chieftain Commius and pledge as Lord Paramount of the British clans, that Britain would pay an annual tribute to the Roman treasury.

Caesar heaved a sigh of relief, autumn was coming and if Caswallon had continued with the guerrilla warfare, the rest of the summer would have been eaten up by the campaign and with ominous signs appearing in Gaul, he really need to get back to his base on the continent, before winter set in. Caesar agreed terms with Caswallon, added a stipulation that he should leave Mandubratius on the Trinobantian throne, took hostages and returned to the coast. He sailed back to Gaul on September the 26^th 54BC leaving a nominally conquered and tribute paying Britain behind him.

Caesar never set foot in Britain again and there is doubt as to how much of the tribute – if any – was actually paid to the treasury of Rome.

Aethelflaed Of Mercia

Aethelflaed the daughter of King Alfred The Great was born in 872 and when old enough in 889 was married to Earldorman Aethelred of the Anglo Saxon part of Mercia. A friend of her fathers, Aethelred although not a king ruled the kingdom with Alfred’s consent from 883 and when Alfred captured and fortified London in 886 it was handed into Aethelred’s keeping.

Alfred the great died in the October of 899 and his son Edward (the elder) took over, he was crown king in June 900 at Kingston on Thames.  His cousin Aethelwold disputed his claim to the throne and seized Wimbourne and Christchurch, but when faced by Edward’s army fled north and was declared king by the Danes of Northumbria. In 901 Aethelwold returned at the head of a Danish fleet and the following year expanded his army by persuading the Danes of East Anglia to join him.

With his hands full elsewhere in the kingdom Edward relied on his formidable sister Aethelflaed and her husband Aethelred to keep Mercia safe

In 907 with her husband ill Aethelflaed proved that she was her fathers daughter by seeing to the defence of Chester against the Norse army led by Ingimunds. She also expanded her father’s programme of fortified Burh building into Mercia and in 910 erected a stronghold at Bremesbyrig. (These fortified Burhs in time would become the Boroughs of today.)

Aethelflaed’s husband Aethelred died in 911, possibly from wounds received the previous year at the battle of Tettenhall. From then on she ruled alone and continued to strengthen Mercia’s defences by building burhs in strategic locations. In 912 she built fortresses at Scergeat and Bridgenorth, then the following year at Tamworth and Stratford. These were quickly followed by Eddisbury and Warwick in 914 and then a further three in 915, Chirbury, Weardbyrig and Runcorn.

In the June of 916 Abbot Ecgberht died at the hands of the Welsh and within three days ‘The Lady of the Mercians’ as Aethelfaed was now known, despatched her army into Wales and captured the wife of Brycheiniog and thirty three others. In 917 Aethelflaed conquered Derby and in the following year the army at Leicester submitted to her.

Aethelfaed, a true warrior queen, died at Tamworth twelve days before summer 918 and was buried in St Peters church in Gloucester.

Cartimadua Warrior Queen 43AD to 70AD

Queen Cartimandua (Sleek Horse?) was the legendary queen ruling the confederation of tribes known as Brigantes from a tribal base, probably in the Iron Age fortress of Stanwick, North Yorkshire. She took as her husband and warlord, Venutius of the Carvetii tribe and while he was called king, Queen Catimandua by tradition and lineage held the power of rule.

 In 43AD the Brigantes were the largest tribe in northern Britain and sooner than attempt subjugation, the Romans entered into treaties with them. Catimandua in exchange for security and lack of interference agreed that the Brigantes would act as a self-governing buffer zone, between the Romans and the wilder tribes further north.

Not all of the Brigantes agreed with the treaty and there was an underlying unrest that finally exploded into open rebellion against Cartimandua in 48AD. The rebellion was eventually quelled with help from her allies the Romans, Ostorius Scapula broke off an engagement against the Ordovices of North Wales to come to her aid. Resentment against Cartimandua, which had not really gone away, bubbled closer to the surface in 51AD when she handed prince Caratacus over to the Romans.

 Caratacus a Catuvellauni warlord, the son of Conobelinus leader of the southern Celts, had previously joined forces with the Ordovices to fight against Roman rule. Unfortunately he was eventually beaten in battle and his wife and daughter were taken. Caratacus managed to escape capture and travelled to Brigantia to seek help and instead found himself bound in chains by order of Cartimandua and handed over to her old friend Ostorius Scapula, who was by then the Roman governor.

This action was seen by many of the Brigantian nobles as a pro Roman step too far and resentment continued against the queen until finally in 53AD/ 55AD, after she had divorced him, Venutius set up a rival faction and launched an attack. As before Cartimandua turned to the Romans for assistance and Aulus Didius Gallus the new Roman governor sent several auxiliary cohorts to help out.

Catimandua a strong willed woman continued to rule but did nothing to help her cause by taking as her consort a young warrior called Vellocatus who had been her ex husband’s armour bearer. This move scandalised the Brigantian nobles and stirred up resentment once more. Despite this Cartimandua with her consort Vellocatus by her side, managed to hold on as queen until 70AD when a massive rebellion ousted her from power and she had to be rescued by a unit of Roman auxiliary cavalry.

After the agreement was concluded between King Alfred and Guthrum, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria came under the rule of the Danelaw and King Alfred continued to rule the Saxon Kingdom of Wessex.

A year later 879 the Danes had been cleared from Mercia to the west of Watling street and for a few years there was peace. To secure Wessex against further attack, Alfred began the building of Burhs (Fortified towns, the forerunners of today’s Boroughs) all over kingdom. The Burhs eventual ringed Wessex so that no town or village was more that twenty miles from a place of safety. To ensure the burhs were adequately defended, each hide of land (A hide was big enough to support a family) had to provide one adult male to man the defences of a burh. The idea of the burhs was to keep the enemy occupied while Alfred raised the fyrd (a levied army) and marched to relieve them.

In 885 the Danes landed in Kent near Plucks Gutter on the river Stour and besieged Rochester. The city managed to hold out until Alfred arrived with his army and drove them back to their ships. Some fled to the continent, but some of them only travelled as far as East Anglia, there they encouraged the Danes there to rise against the Saxons and together they attacked Benfleet in Essex. The fyrd was raised once more and after driving the Danes back to the fortified Roman part of London (which was within Guthrum’s East Anglia) they attacked and eventually overran the city. The new Danes then fell out with the East Anglian Danes and left for continent. Alfred sent a fleet to East Anglia, which was defeated by the Danes.  Alfred and Guthrum came to an agreement (Known as the Firth deed of Alfred and Guthrum) and Alfred gave London into the keeping of his son in law, Aethelred the Earldorman of West Mercia.

Peace of a sort reigned for the next few years and in 890 Alfred’s old adversary Guthrum King of Danish East Anglia died.

Meanwhile, the Danes under pressure on the continent looked towards England again and in 892 a fleet of two hundred and fifty ships arrived in the estuary of the Lympe. After rowing four miles inland they captured a half built fortress at Appledore in Kent. At more or less the same time another fleet of eighty ships under Haesten landed at Milton also in Kent and built themselves a fort there. Since the Danes in both of the fleets had brought their families with them it was obviously a major attempt to conquer and colonise Saxon lands.

Alfred with his army set up camp on higher ground between the two forts so that he could observe both of the Danish camps and be in position to react quickly if either should leave their fortress. As had become standard practice Alfred paid Danegelt to Haesten who gave him in exchange his oath and hostages. In addition Haesten agreed that his two sons be baptised Christians with Alfred and Earldorman Aethelred standing as Godparents. Partway through these negotiations the Danes at Appledore broke out, headed inland and rampaged throughout Hampshire and Berkshire looting and burning.

Splitting his army into two, Alfred sent his son Edward the Elder after them. Edward caught up and attacked them at Farnham as they were returning to their ships; the Danes were routed and fled to an island in the river Colne. Edward recovered the loot and blockaded the island. While all this was going on the Nortumbrian and East Aglian Danes had gathered a fleet and were besieging Exeter and a fort in north Devon. Having completed his negotiations with Haesten, Alfred was on his way to join Edward when he heard the news and he turn to go to the assistance Exeter. Haesten meanwhile had left Milton and gone to Benfleet, where he began to raze the countryside.

Back on the island in the Colne the Danes blockaded by Edward were forced to submit and the survivors retreated to join Haesten at Benfleet.

Alfred sent part of the army to London where they gathered reinforcements and while Haesten was away on a raid, stormed his camp at Benfleet capturing the women and children, including Haesten’s wife and two sons, destroying some of his ships and capturing the rest. (Alfred later sent Haesten’s sons back to him)

While Alfred was in Exeter, the rest of the Danish army moved to Shoebury and after building a fortress there travelled up the Thames valley gathering reinforcements on the way. This much expanded army then travelled up the Severn valley until they met with a combined army from Wessex Mercia and Wales, led by Earldorman Aethelred, Eardorman Aethelhelm and Eardorman Aethelnoth. The combined army surrounded and besieged the Danes at Buttingham for several weeks. The starving Danes were eventually driven to eat their horses and when all sustenance was gone, had no choice but to attempt a break out. They burst out and attacked the men on the eastern side of the river and many of the King’s thanes were killed, including Ordhelm. Many of the Danes were slain, the rest fled, returned to their fortress in Essex and from there moved into East Anglia.

Once more they were reinforced and after leaving their women and children safe in East Anglia, marched day and night until they reached the city of Chester in Wirheal.

The Saxons taken by surprise did not catch up with them until they were firmly ensconced within the fortress. Not wanting to enforce a winter blockade the Saxons seized all the nearby cattle, burnt or consumed the corn.

 Early the next year the starving Danes broke out, marched into the south of Wales and after creating havoc in Gwent and Glywysing, took the loot that they had captured and returned via Danish held lands to eastern Essex. They then rowed up the river Thames and into the river Lea until they were twenty miles to the northeast of London and built a fort, where they over wintered.

Meanwhile the Army that had attacked Exeter was driven away by Alfred and sailed back home to Northumbria and East Anglia. On the way they decided a raid into Sussex near Chichester, but were driven off by the locals, who killed hundreds of them and captured some of their ships.

In the summer of the next year 895, the Mercians of London raised an army and attacked the Danes, but they were routed and sent fleeing. Later in the year Alfred camped nearby and blockaded the river lower down by building two forts. Unable to break out via the river the Danes abandoned their ships and marched overland to Bridgenorth on the river Seven, where they built a fort.

While the Saxon army followed the Danes, the men of London attacked and overpowered the Danes left to guard the fort on the Lea and took most of the ships back to London, those they did not take they burnt. The Danes in Bridgenorth over wintered there and in the spring of 896 dispersed, some back to East Anglia, some to Northumbria and the rest back to the continent from whence they came.

The Saxons heaved a sigh of relief, for the past four years, led by King Alfred, they had fought against this latest Danish invasion and now they could settle down to a time of peace and for most of them it was, although the south coast continued to be harassed by roving bands of Danes. Alfred only lived another three years, he died in 899, but in those few years he had bigger ships built and continued to fight the Danes at sea.

The Battle Of Stamford Bridge.

In 1066 the battle of Hastings wasn’t the only battle that King Harold Godwinsson fought. Less than twenty days prior to that famous battle, he had no choice but to fight another battle in the north of England against an enemy that was as strong and equally as determined to wrest the throne of England from his grasp. That enemy was Haraldur (Hard Ruler) Sigurosson the king of Norway who claimed he had a right to the throne via a treaty between his nephew Magnus and King Knutur, the son of King Canute who had a claim on the throne of England.

Haraldur gathered a fleet of two hundred ships and sailed for the north of England, where he met up with the Earls of Orkney and Scotland. In addition Harold Godwinssons own brother, Tostig the deposed Earl Of Northumbria, who was after having his Earldom reinstated, joined him. This brought the fleet up to three hundred ships, carrying nine thousand men. The fleet swept down the northeast coast harrying

the Yorkshire towns of Cleaveland, Scarborough and Holderness, before turning into the Humber and sailing up the Ouse, to land at Riccall.

Warned of Haraldur’s coming the Earl of Northumbria, Morcar and the Earl of Mercia, Edwin, had joined forces and waited for him at Gate Fulford. It was the 20^th of September when the two sides met and with a mighty crash the shield walls came together. Both sides fought long and hard and lost many men, but as evening neared the Norwegians broke through the wall and the English survivors fled the field.

York capitulated in an effort to prevent the city being sacked and Haraldur believing that King Harold would be unable to move north while under threat of invasion in the south, took hostages and negotiated for supplies to be delivered. The City readily agreed his terms. (There were many in York who supported his cause, after all, up until only twenty-four years prior a Danish King had ruled the city.) Leaving one third of his force under the command of Eystein Orre at Riccall, to guard the ships, Haraldur and Tostig marched with the rest to the cross roads at Stamford Bridge. The bridge was the designated meeting place, where hostages and supplies would be exchanged.

When King Harold heard of the defeat at Gate Fulford, he gathered his army and together with his brother Gyrth, set off on a forced march towards the north. As the army raced northwards, men from Mercia and Yorkshire joined them and in four days they were in Tadcaster, an amazing feat.

The 25^th of September was a sunny day and by late morning believing there was no danger Haraldur’s men removed their helmets and chain mail and lay relaxing on the banks of the Derwent. They were expecting a delegation with supplies from the direction of York, instead Harold and his army appeared. Surprised and outnumbered Haraldur sent for reinforcement and after setting up a rearguard to hold the bridge, moved hurriedly to the higher ground.

Harold offered to reinstate his brother as Earl of Northumbria if he would join him, but when Tostig asked what lands he would grant Haraldur, King Harold replied that since the Norwegian was an exceptionally tall man he would grant him seven feet of ground. Tostig turned down the offer and remained with Haraldur.

Before the main battle could begin the rearguard had to be dealt with. The rearguard fought bravely, but was soon overwhelmed, all bar one man, a great axe wielding Norseman who held the centre of the narrow bridge. Dozens of men went against him and all were cut down, until eventually a warrior crept beneath the bridge and stabbing upwards through a gap in the decking, speared him in the groin. An ignoble end to a brave warrior, but his sacrifice gave the Norwegians time to prepare their shield wall.

With the axe man taken care of, the English streamed across the bridge, formed into line, moved uphill and shield wall, to shield wall, the battle proper began. All afternoon the battle raged with neither side gaining the upper hand, until Haraldur, filled with blood lust surged forward in front of his men and hacking left, right and centre, forged his way into the English line almost causing a rout. Unfortunately at this point his luck ran out and he was struck in the throat by an arrow.

1066 The Three Kings

In 1042 Edward The Confessor, son of Ethelred the Unready, returned from exile to take up the throne of England again, After reigning for twenty-six years Edward died early in January1066 and the English throne was up for grabs once more. Three men claimed the right of succession and all three were of Viking descent.

The First was Harold Godwinsson, one of the most powerful Earls in England, eldest son of Earl Godwin of Wessex, father in law, and kingmaker to Edward The Confessor; and the man who helped Him regain his throne in 1042.

The Second was King Haraldur Sigurosson Of Norway (Haraldur the Ruthless) one of the great Viking sea kings. Haraldur believed the throne was his rightful inheritance because of an old treaty between his nephew Magnus former king of Norway and King Knutur the son of King Canute former king of Denmark and England; each had nominated the other as the heir to his throne.

The third was Duke William of Normandy, so called William The Bastard because of being born the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I (Robert the Devil) and Herleve a tanner’s daughter. Duke William was on friendly terms with Edward The Confessor who had spent twenty-five years of his life exiled to Normandy during the reign king Canute. William was later to claim that childless Edward had nominated him as his heir during a visit to England in 1051.

King Edward died on the 5^th of January 1066 and on the 6^th Harold Godwinsson the strong man who had ruled England in all but name for the last ten years of Edward’s reign, had himself proclaimed king of England. William incensed because Harold had given him an oath of Allegiance, began to build an invasion fleet. While all eyes are on Normandy, Haraldur in Norway, confident that he can best Harold and grab the throne for himself, is secretly making preparations for his own invasion. Unaware of this threat from the north Harold prepares for the Norman invasion.

Ten years earlier Harold had made his brother Tostig Earl of Northumbria, but after ten years of oppression the people of Northumbria rose up and threw him out. Eager to regain Northumbria and blaming Harold for not helping him out, Tostig was a loose cannon, he and his men available to anyone at a price. In May Tostig with a fleet arrived off the Isle of White. Harold hurried south with his army and Tostig left.

A possible diversionary attack? If so, no other attack came all that summer and Harold was forced to stand the army down in September, as moral and supplies were running low.

Meanwhile Haraldur had cross from Norway and accompanied by Tostig and a Scottish contingent swept down the northeast coast at the head of a fleet of 300 ships and 9,000 men. After raiding the coastal towns of Cleveland, Scarborough and Holderness, he travelled up river, landing at Riccall on the Ouse where he prepared to take York. The way to York however was barred by a joint army of Northumbrian’s and Mercian’s at Gate Fulford. The battle was hard, bloody and lasted most of the day, but in the end after both sides had lost a lot of men, the Norwegians were the victors.

With it army scattered to the winds, York capitulated and Haraldur spent a few days taking hostages and gathering recruits before marching to Stamford Bridge on the river Derwent.

On hearing of the battle at Gate Fulford, Harold gathered his Army and after a series of forced marches arrived at Stamford Bridge at noon on the 25^th of September. Haraldur taken by surprise hurriedly gathered his men and battle commenced. All afternoon the battle raged with first one side then other gaining the advantage, but eventually King Haraldur received a death wound, an arrow to the throat and the Norwegians were beaten. Norwegian reinforcements arrived from the ships, but the battle was over and along with the survivors they were granted quarter. 300 ships had arrived packed with warriors, but only 24 filled with survivors limped back to Norway.

On 27^th September after being delayed by adverse weather Duke William at the head of 10,000 men carried in 700 ships, left Normandy and landed unopposed on Pevensey beach to the west of Hastings. The Normans arrived on the morning of the 28^th and by evening had disembarked and set up a beachhead on the peninsular.

Up north, Harold’s men were licking their wounds and relaxing from the hard won battle, when the news came and they were forced to rush southwards once more. They reached London on the 5^th of October and spent five days raising more men before Harold had them on the move again. Despite being advised to wait until he had raised a larger army, he felt that if he was quick enough he could dig in along the Senlac Ridge and would be able to keep the Normans bottled up for the winter. Unfortunately he was a little too late and the Norman advance was upon him before he could complete his defences on the ridge.

Halfdan Of The Wide Embrace

After the death of the kings Osbert and Aella in the battle for York, Northumbria belonged to the Danes and pausing only to put a puppet king on the throne, the brothers Halfdan, Ivarr, and Ubbe turned their eyes southward once more. At the head of the great heathen horde they marched over three hundred kilometres back to East Anglia to do battle with the army of King Edmund. The battle took place near Hoxne in Suffolk; the Danes fresh from their victory in the north, slaughtered Edmunds army and carried the day. King Edmund escaped but was caught and according to the writings of Abbo of Fleury  “he was placed with his back against a tree, as if on a rack and used for target practice in archery until he bristled with arrows like a hedgehog. When he was eventually wrenched away from the tree trunk his back was ripped open exposing his ribcage”. After his death Edmund was elevated to the sainthood. East Anglia like Northumbria was now under the heel of the Danes.

Around about this time the great heathen army split in two. Ivarr and his men went north to join his Viking friends from Ireland in the destruction of the Fortress of Dumbarton in Strathclyde and then returned to his kingdom in Dublin. Halfdan stayed in East Anglia where Guthrum who arrived at the head the Great Summer Army joined him.  Together they launched a series of assaults on Wessex, but after a season of fighting, stalemate was reached in the autumn of 871, Alfred paid Danegelt and the Danes retreated to London 

In 872 the Danish army moved north to crush a rebellion in Northumbria and then in 874 turned its attention to Mercia. After capturing the city of Repton they swept through Mercia driving King Burgred into exile overseas and capturing the whole of the Kingdom. With Burgred gone they placed Ceolwulf on the throne to rule as a puppet King.

By now Halfdan had heard of the death of his brother Ivarr in Dublin the year before and the Danish force split again. Guthram and the Summer Army moved back to Cambridge to prepare for a new assault on Wessex, while Halfdan headed north with the remainder of the great heathen army. Determined to regain his brother’s kingdom, he set up camp on the Tyne and after over wintering, struck deep into Strathclyde to Dumbarton in an attempt to bring the area back into the Northumbrian fold. He also made an unsuccessful attempt to win back Dublin from the Norwegian Vikings who had gained control after the death of Ivarr.

After ten years of almost constant warfare Halfdan’s men had grown weary of battle and he was forced to return to Northumbria to divide up the land amongst his followers. It was the year 876 and in that year the majority of the warriors of Great Heathen army put away their swords and took up the plough.